Identidad étnica como predictor del bienestar: Estudio exploratorio transcultural en Brasil y Europa
##plugins.themes.bootstrap3.article.sidebar##
Publicado
12/2012
##plugins.themes.bootstrap3.article.main##
Resumen
El objetivo de la presente investigación fue examinar la asociación entre la felicidad y el malestar en los grupos analizados con la identidad étnica, en grupo de estudiantes universitarios (Brasil, Portugal y Polonia). Se aplicaron los siguientes cuestionarios: Identidad Étnica-MEIM, Salud, Depresión y Felicidad. Los datos muestran que los estudiantes brasileños en particular fueron el grupo donde se encontraron más relaciones entre la identidad étnica y el bienestar. Los estudiantes europeos (portugueses y polacos) han mostrado una asociación significativa entre la actitud positiva y su sentido de pertenencia étnica con una mejor calidad de vida y menos malestar. Estos resultados son importantes porque confirman la idea básica de la identidad social fuerte como un aspecto de felicidad y menos angustia; y discuten la intervención práctica dirigida hacia la identidad étnica.
##plugins.themes.bootstrap3.article.details##
Palabras clave
identidad étnica, well-being, ill-being, Brasil, Europa
Número
Sección
Artículos originales
Derechos de autor 2017 Summa Psicológica
Política propuesta para revistas que ofrecen acceso abierto
Aquellos/as autores/as que tengan publicaciones con esta revista, aceptan los términos siguientes:
- Los/as autores/as conservarán sus derechos de autor y garantizarán a la revista el derecho de primera publicación de su obra, el cual estará simultáneamente sujeto a la Licencia de reconocimiento de Creative Commons, que permite a terceros compartir la obra siempre que se indique su autor y su primera publicación en esta revista.
- Los/as autores/as podrán adoptar otros acuerdos de licencia no exclusiva de distribución de la versión de la obra publicada (p. ej.: depositarla en un archivo telemático institucional o publicarla en un volumen monográfico) siempre que se indique la publicación inicial en esta revista.
- Se permite y recomienda a los/as autores/as difundir su obra a través de Internet (p. ej.: en archivos telemáticos institucionales o en su página web) antes y durante el proceso de envío, lo cual puede producir intercambios interesantes y aumentar las citas de la obra publicada. (Véase El efecto del acceso abierto).
Referencias
Afonso, F. de Sousa (2009). Identidade Étnica, Modelos Relacionais e Bem-Estar na Adolescência [Ethnic Identity, Relational Models and Well-Being in Adolescence. Unplublished master dissertation]. Dissertação de Mestrado não publicada, Lisboa, Portugal.
Alonso, J., Regidor, E., Barrio, G., Prieto, L., Rodríguez, C. & De la Fuente, L. (1998). Valores poblacionales de referencia de la versión española del Cuestionario de Salud SF-36 [Population reference values of the Spanish version of the Health Questionnaire SF-36]. Medicina Clínica de Barcelona, 111, 410-416.
Argyle, M., & Martín, M. (1991). The psychological causes of happiness. In F. Strack, M. Argyle, & N. Schwartz (Eds.), Subjective well-being. Elmsford, NY: Pergamon Press.
Basabe, N., Zlobina, A. & Páez, D. (2004). Integración sociocultural y adaptación psicológica de los inmigrantes extranjeros en el País Vasco [Sociocultural integration and psychological adjustment of the foreign immigrants in the Basque Country]. Cuadernos Sociológicos Vascos. Vitoria-Gasteiz: Servicio Central de Publicaciones del Gobierno Vasco.
Beck, A. Ward, C. & Mendelson, M. (1961). Inventory for measuring depression. Archive of General of Psychiatry, 4, 561-571. doi.apa.org/?uid=1962-03078-001
Bianchi, T., Zea, M. Belgrave, F. & Echeverry, J. (2002). Racial Identity and Self-Esteem among Black Brazilian men: Race matters in Brazil Too! Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 2, 157–169. doi: 10.1037//1099-9809.8.2.157
Brian, P. (2001).The Catholic nation: Religion, Identity, and the narratives of Polish history. Slavic and East European Journal, 45(2), 289-299. doi: 10.2307/3086330
Cislo, A. (2008). Ethnic identity and Self-esteem: Contrasting Cuban and Nicaraguan young adults. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 30(2), 230-250. doi: 10.1177/0739986308315297
Cross, W. Pharam, T. & Helms, J. (1998). Nigrescence revisited: theory and research. In R. Jones (Ed.), African American identity development: Theory, research, and intervention (pp. 3-71). Hamptom, VA: Cobb & Henry.
Erikson, E. (1968). Identity: Youth, and crisis. New York, NY: Norton.
Ferreira,V., Lima, M., & Lopes, D. (2003). Simetrias e Identidades: Jovens negros em Portugal [Symmetries and Identities: Young Blacks in Portugal].
Fischer, A., & Moradi, B. (2001). Racial and ethnic identity. In J. Ponterotto, J. Casas, L. Suzuki, & C. Alexander (Eds.), Handbook of Multicultural Counselling (2nd ed., pp. 341–370). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Galent, M. & Kubicki, P. (2007). Issues, methods and, outcomes of ethnological studies on cultural diversity in Poland. In: Ethnological understandings of cultural diversity in Central European Urban Spaces. Retrieved from http://www.diversity.mtaki.hu/state_of_the_art
Goldberg, D. (1978). Manual of the General Health Questionnaire. England, EN: NFER Publish.
Gray-Little, B., & Hafdahl, A (2000). Factors influencing racial comparisons of self-esteem: A quantitative analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 26-54. doi: i0.1037//0033-2909.126.1.26
Jones, H., Cross, W. y DeFour, C. (2007). Race-related stress, racial identity attitudes, and mental health among Black women. Journal of Black Psychology, 33(2), 208-231. doi: 10.1177/0095798407299517
Kiang, L., Gonzales-Backen, M., Yip, T., Witkow, M., & Fuligni, A. (2006). Ethnic identity and the daily psychological wellbeing of adolescents from Mexican and Chinese backgrounds. Child Development, 77, 1338-1350. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006.00938.x
Lee, R. (2003). Do ethnic identity and other-group orientation protect against discrimination for Asian Americans? Journal of Counseling Psychology, 50, 133-141. doi: 10.1037/0022-0167.50.2.133
Lima, M. & Novo, R. (2005). So far so good? Subjective and social well-being in Portugal and Europe. Portuguese Journal of Social Science, 5(1),5–33.doi: 10.1386/pjss.5.1.5/1
Luszczynska, A., Gutiérrez-Doña, B. & Schwarzer, R.(2005) General self-efficacy in various domains of human functioning: Evidence from five countries. International Journal of Psychology, 40(2), 80–89. doi: 10.1080/00207590444000041
Lyubomirsky, S., King, L., & Diener, E. (2005). The benefits of frequent positive affect: Does happiness lead to success? Psychology Bulletin, 131, 803-855. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.131.6.803
Madorsky, S. (2007, July). Country Studies Series: Poland. Coexistence International. Retrieved from http://heller.brandeis.edu/academic/ma-coex/files/CI%20Resources/polandcs.pdf
Mcleod, J., & Owens, T. (2004). Psychological well-being in the early life course: Variations by socioeconomic status, gender, and race/ethnicity. Social Psychology Quarterly, 67(3), 257-278. doi: 10.1177/019027250406700303
Minkov, M. (2009). Predictors of differences in subjective well-being across 97 nations. Cross-Cultural Research, 43, 152-179. doi: 10.1177/1069397109332239
Mossakowski, K. (2003). Coping with perceived discrimination: Does ethnic identity protect mental health? Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 44, 318-331. doi: 10.2307/1519782
Páez, D., Bilbao, M., & Javaloy, F. (2008). Del trauma a la felicidad: Hechos vitales y procesos socio cognitivos de crecimiento personal e interpersonal. In M. Casullo (Ed.), Prácticas en Psicología Positiva [Practice in Positive Psychology]. Buenos Aires: Lugar Editorial.
Phinney, J. (1990). Ethnic Identity in adolescents and adults: Review of research. Psychological Bulletin, 108, 499-514. doi: 0033-2909/90/J00.75
Phinney, J. (1992). The Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure: A new scale for use with diverse groups. Journal of Adolescent Research,7,156-176. doi: 10.1177/074355489272003
Phinney, J., Cantu, C., & Kurtz, D. (1997). Ethnic and American identity as predictors of self-esteem among African American, Latino and White adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 26, 165-185. doi 10.1023/A:1024500514834
Phinney, J., Horenczyk, G., Liebkind, K., & Vedder, P. (2001). Ethnic identity, immigration, and well-being: An interpersonal perspective. Journal of Social Issues, 57, 493-510. doi: 10.1111/0022-4537.00225
Phinney, J. (2003). Ethnic identity and acculturation. In Chun,K., Balls, P. & Marín G. (Eds.), Acculturation: Advances in theory, measurement, and applied research (pp. 63-81). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Phinney, J., & Devich-Navarro, M. (1997). Variations in bicultural identification among African American and Mexican American adolescents. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 7, 3-32. doi: 10.1207/s15327795jra0701_2
Ramos de Oliveira, D. (2009). Identidad étnica, Autoestima colectiva, Valores y Bienestar: Estudios en Brasil, Argentina, Polonia y Portugal [Ethnic identity, Collective Self-esteem, Values and Wellbeing]. Series Doctorales. País Vasco, España: Servicio Editorial de Universidad del País Vasco.
Retolaza, A. (1998). Epidemiología de los trastornos mentales en atención primaria [Epidemiology of mental disorders in primary care]. In Vázquez-Baquero, J. L. (Ed.), Psiquiatría en atención primaria (pp. 55-72). Madrid: Grupo Aula Médica.
Ryff, C. Keys, C. & Hughes, D. (2003). Status inequalities, perceived discrimination, and eudaimonic well-being: Do the challenges of minority life hone purpose and growth? Journal of Health and Social Behaviour, 44, 275-290. doi: 10.2307/1519779
Sellers, R., Caldwell, C., Schmeelk-Cone, K., & Zimmerman, M. (2003). Racial identity, racial discrimination, perceived stress, and psychological distress among African American young adults. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 44, 302-317. doi: 10.2307/1519781
Shelton, J., Richeson, J., & Vorauer, J. (2006).Threatened identities and interethnic interactions. In W. Stroebe & M., Hewstone, (Eds.), European Review of Social Psychology (pp. 321-358). New York, NY: Psychology Press.
Tajfel, H. (1981). Human groups and social categories: Studies in social psychology. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Tajfel, H., & Forgas, J. (2000). Social categorization: Cognitions, values, and groups. In C. Stangor (Ed.), Stereotypes and prejudice: Essential readings (pp. 49-63). New York, NY: Psychology Press.
Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. (1986). The social identity theory of intergroup behaviour. In S. Worchel & W. Autín (Eds.), Psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 7-24). Chigago, IL: Nelson.
Taylor, D., & Moghaddam, F. (1994). Social identity theory. D., Taylor, (Ed.) Theories of intergroup relations (2nd ed., pp. 61-94). Westport, CT: Praeger.
Tsai, J., Ying, Y., & Allen P. (2001). Cultural predictors of selfesteem: A study of Chinese American female and male young adults. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 7, 284- 297. doi: 10.1037//1099-98.09.7.3.284
Umaña-Taylor, A. (2004). Ethnic identity and self-esteem: Examining the role of social context. Journal of Adolescence, 27,139-146. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2003.11.006
Umaña-Taylor, A., Yazedijan, A., & Hamaca-Gómez, M. (2004). Developing the ethnic identity scale using Eriksonian and social identity perspectives. Identity: An International Journal of Theory and Research, 4, 9-38. doi: 10.1207/S1532706XID0401_2
Utsey, S., Chae, M., Brown, C., & Kelly, D. (2002). Effect of ethnic group membership on ethnic identity, race-related stress and quality of life. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 8, 367-378. doi: 10.1037/1099-9809.8.4.367
Vala, J.(Coord.), Coleção Estudos sobre Juventude, nº8, Oieiras: Celta/Instituto Português da Juventude.
Vázquez, C., & Sanz, J. (1978). Adaptación española del inventario de depresión de Beck, propiedades psicométricas y clínicas en muestras clínicas y en población general [Spanish adaptation of the Beck Depression Inventory psychometric properties and clinical in sample clinical and general population]. Madrid: Universidad Complutense.
Vázquez-Barquero, J. , Herrera, S., Bourgón, E., & Pindado, G. (2001). Cuestionario para la Evaluación de Discapacidad de la Organización Mundial de la Salud. [Spanish version of World Health Organization Disability Assessment Schedule II. WHODAS II. Ministerio de Trabajo y Asuntos Sociales.
Ware, J., Kosinski, M., & Keller, S. (1996). 12-Item Short-form Health Survey: Construction of scales and preliminary tests of reliability and validity. Medical Care, 34(3), 220-233. doi: 00005650-199603000-00003
Wong, C., Eccles, J., & Sameroff, A. (2003).The influence of ethnic discrimination and ethnic identification on African American adolescent school and socioemotional adjustment. Journal of Personality, 71, 1197-1232. doi: 10.1111/1467-6494.7106012
Yasui, M., Dorham, C., & Dishion, T. (2004). Ethnic identity and psychological adjustment: A validity analysis for European American and African American adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Research, 19, 807-825. doi.org/10.1177/0743558403260098
Yoo, H., & Lee, R. (2005). Ethnic identity and approach type coping as moderator of the racial discrimination /well-being relation in Asian Americans. Journal of Counselling Psychology, 52, 497-506. doi: 10.1037/0022-0167.52.4.497
Alonso, J., Regidor, E., Barrio, G., Prieto, L., Rodríguez, C. & De la Fuente, L. (1998). Valores poblacionales de referencia de la versión española del Cuestionario de Salud SF-36 [Population reference values of the Spanish version of the Health Questionnaire SF-36]. Medicina Clínica de Barcelona, 111, 410-416.
Argyle, M., & Martín, M. (1991). The psychological causes of happiness. In F. Strack, M. Argyle, & N. Schwartz (Eds.), Subjective well-being. Elmsford, NY: Pergamon Press.
Basabe, N., Zlobina, A. & Páez, D. (2004). Integración sociocultural y adaptación psicológica de los inmigrantes extranjeros en el País Vasco [Sociocultural integration and psychological adjustment of the foreign immigrants in the Basque Country]. Cuadernos Sociológicos Vascos. Vitoria-Gasteiz: Servicio Central de Publicaciones del Gobierno Vasco.
Beck, A. Ward, C. & Mendelson, M. (1961). Inventory for measuring depression. Archive of General of Psychiatry, 4, 561-571. doi.apa.org/?uid=1962-03078-001
Bianchi, T., Zea, M. Belgrave, F. & Echeverry, J. (2002). Racial Identity and Self-Esteem among Black Brazilian men: Race matters in Brazil Too! Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 2, 157–169. doi: 10.1037//1099-9809.8.2.157
Brian, P. (2001).The Catholic nation: Religion, Identity, and the narratives of Polish history. Slavic and East European Journal, 45(2), 289-299. doi: 10.2307/3086330
Cislo, A. (2008). Ethnic identity and Self-esteem: Contrasting Cuban and Nicaraguan young adults. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 30(2), 230-250. doi: 10.1177/0739986308315297
Cross, W. Pharam, T. & Helms, J. (1998). Nigrescence revisited: theory and research. In R. Jones (Ed.), African American identity development: Theory, research, and intervention (pp. 3-71). Hamptom, VA: Cobb & Henry.
Erikson, E. (1968). Identity: Youth, and crisis. New York, NY: Norton.
Ferreira,V., Lima, M., & Lopes, D. (2003). Simetrias e Identidades: Jovens negros em Portugal [Symmetries and Identities: Young Blacks in Portugal].
Fischer, A., & Moradi, B. (2001). Racial and ethnic identity. In J. Ponterotto, J. Casas, L. Suzuki, & C. Alexander (Eds.), Handbook of Multicultural Counselling (2nd ed., pp. 341–370). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Galent, M. & Kubicki, P. (2007). Issues, methods and, outcomes of ethnological studies on cultural diversity in Poland. In: Ethnological understandings of cultural diversity in Central European Urban Spaces. Retrieved from http://www.diversity.mtaki.hu/state_of_the_art
Goldberg, D. (1978). Manual of the General Health Questionnaire. England, EN: NFER Publish.
Gray-Little, B., & Hafdahl, A (2000). Factors influencing racial comparisons of self-esteem: A quantitative analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 26-54. doi: i0.1037//0033-2909.126.1.26
Jones, H., Cross, W. y DeFour, C. (2007). Race-related stress, racial identity attitudes, and mental health among Black women. Journal of Black Psychology, 33(2), 208-231. doi: 10.1177/0095798407299517
Kiang, L., Gonzales-Backen, M., Yip, T., Witkow, M., & Fuligni, A. (2006). Ethnic identity and the daily psychological wellbeing of adolescents from Mexican and Chinese backgrounds. Child Development, 77, 1338-1350. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006.00938.x
Lee, R. (2003). Do ethnic identity and other-group orientation protect against discrimination for Asian Americans? Journal of Counseling Psychology, 50, 133-141. doi: 10.1037/0022-0167.50.2.133
Lima, M. & Novo, R. (2005). So far so good? Subjective and social well-being in Portugal and Europe. Portuguese Journal of Social Science, 5(1),5–33.doi: 10.1386/pjss.5.1.5/1
Luszczynska, A., Gutiérrez-Doña, B. & Schwarzer, R.(2005) General self-efficacy in various domains of human functioning: Evidence from five countries. International Journal of Psychology, 40(2), 80–89. doi: 10.1080/00207590444000041
Lyubomirsky, S., King, L., & Diener, E. (2005). The benefits of frequent positive affect: Does happiness lead to success? Psychology Bulletin, 131, 803-855. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.131.6.803
Madorsky, S. (2007, July). Country Studies Series: Poland. Coexistence International. Retrieved from http://heller.brandeis.edu/academic/ma-coex/files/CI%20Resources/polandcs.pdf
Mcleod, J., & Owens, T. (2004). Psychological well-being in the early life course: Variations by socioeconomic status, gender, and race/ethnicity. Social Psychology Quarterly, 67(3), 257-278. doi: 10.1177/019027250406700303
Minkov, M. (2009). Predictors of differences in subjective well-being across 97 nations. Cross-Cultural Research, 43, 152-179. doi: 10.1177/1069397109332239
Mossakowski, K. (2003). Coping with perceived discrimination: Does ethnic identity protect mental health? Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 44, 318-331. doi: 10.2307/1519782
Páez, D., Bilbao, M., & Javaloy, F. (2008). Del trauma a la felicidad: Hechos vitales y procesos socio cognitivos de crecimiento personal e interpersonal. In M. Casullo (Ed.), Prácticas en Psicología Positiva [Practice in Positive Psychology]. Buenos Aires: Lugar Editorial.
Phinney, J. (1990). Ethnic Identity in adolescents and adults: Review of research. Psychological Bulletin, 108, 499-514. doi: 0033-2909/90/J00.75
Phinney, J. (1992). The Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure: A new scale for use with diverse groups. Journal of Adolescent Research,7,156-176. doi: 10.1177/074355489272003
Phinney, J., Cantu, C., & Kurtz, D. (1997). Ethnic and American identity as predictors of self-esteem among African American, Latino and White adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 26, 165-185. doi 10.1023/A:1024500514834
Phinney, J., Horenczyk, G., Liebkind, K., & Vedder, P. (2001). Ethnic identity, immigration, and well-being: An interpersonal perspective. Journal of Social Issues, 57, 493-510. doi: 10.1111/0022-4537.00225
Phinney, J. (2003). Ethnic identity and acculturation. In Chun,K., Balls, P. & Marín G. (Eds.), Acculturation: Advances in theory, measurement, and applied research (pp. 63-81). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Phinney, J., & Devich-Navarro, M. (1997). Variations in bicultural identification among African American and Mexican American adolescents. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 7, 3-32. doi: 10.1207/s15327795jra0701_2
Ramos de Oliveira, D. (2009). Identidad étnica, Autoestima colectiva, Valores y Bienestar: Estudios en Brasil, Argentina, Polonia y Portugal [Ethnic identity, Collective Self-esteem, Values and Wellbeing]. Series Doctorales. País Vasco, España: Servicio Editorial de Universidad del País Vasco.
Retolaza, A. (1998). Epidemiología de los trastornos mentales en atención primaria [Epidemiology of mental disorders in primary care]. In Vázquez-Baquero, J. L. (Ed.), Psiquiatría en atención primaria (pp. 55-72). Madrid: Grupo Aula Médica.
Ryff, C. Keys, C. & Hughes, D. (2003). Status inequalities, perceived discrimination, and eudaimonic well-being: Do the challenges of minority life hone purpose and growth? Journal of Health and Social Behaviour, 44, 275-290. doi: 10.2307/1519779
Sellers, R., Caldwell, C., Schmeelk-Cone, K., & Zimmerman, M. (2003). Racial identity, racial discrimination, perceived stress, and psychological distress among African American young adults. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 44, 302-317. doi: 10.2307/1519781
Shelton, J., Richeson, J., & Vorauer, J. (2006).Threatened identities and interethnic interactions. In W. Stroebe & M., Hewstone, (Eds.), European Review of Social Psychology (pp. 321-358). New York, NY: Psychology Press.
Tajfel, H. (1981). Human groups and social categories: Studies in social psychology. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Tajfel, H., & Forgas, J. (2000). Social categorization: Cognitions, values, and groups. In C. Stangor (Ed.), Stereotypes and prejudice: Essential readings (pp. 49-63). New York, NY: Psychology Press.
Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. (1986). The social identity theory of intergroup behaviour. In S. Worchel & W. Autín (Eds.), Psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 7-24). Chigago, IL: Nelson.
Taylor, D., & Moghaddam, F. (1994). Social identity theory. D., Taylor, (Ed.) Theories of intergroup relations (2nd ed., pp. 61-94). Westport, CT: Praeger.
Tsai, J., Ying, Y., & Allen P. (2001). Cultural predictors of selfesteem: A study of Chinese American female and male young adults. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 7, 284- 297. doi: 10.1037//1099-98.09.7.3.284
Umaña-Taylor, A. (2004). Ethnic identity and self-esteem: Examining the role of social context. Journal of Adolescence, 27,139-146. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2003.11.006
Umaña-Taylor, A., Yazedijan, A., & Hamaca-Gómez, M. (2004). Developing the ethnic identity scale using Eriksonian and social identity perspectives. Identity: An International Journal of Theory and Research, 4, 9-38. doi: 10.1207/S1532706XID0401_2
Utsey, S., Chae, M., Brown, C., & Kelly, D. (2002). Effect of ethnic group membership on ethnic identity, race-related stress and quality of life. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 8, 367-378. doi: 10.1037/1099-9809.8.4.367
Vala, J.(Coord.), Coleção Estudos sobre Juventude, nº8, Oieiras: Celta/Instituto Português da Juventude.
Vázquez, C., & Sanz, J. (1978). Adaptación española del inventario de depresión de Beck, propiedades psicométricas y clínicas en muestras clínicas y en población general [Spanish adaptation of the Beck Depression Inventory psychometric properties and clinical in sample clinical and general population]. Madrid: Universidad Complutense.
Vázquez-Barquero, J. , Herrera, S., Bourgón, E., & Pindado, G. (2001). Cuestionario para la Evaluación de Discapacidad de la Organización Mundial de la Salud. [Spanish version of World Health Organization Disability Assessment Schedule II. WHODAS II. Ministerio de Trabajo y Asuntos Sociales.
Ware, J., Kosinski, M., & Keller, S. (1996). 12-Item Short-form Health Survey: Construction of scales and preliminary tests of reliability and validity. Medical Care, 34(3), 220-233. doi: 00005650-199603000-00003
Wong, C., Eccles, J., & Sameroff, A. (2003).The influence of ethnic discrimination and ethnic identification on African American adolescent school and socioemotional adjustment. Journal of Personality, 71, 1197-1232. doi: 10.1111/1467-6494.7106012
Yasui, M., Dorham, C., & Dishion, T. (2004). Ethnic identity and psychological adjustment: A validity analysis for European American and African American adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Research, 19, 807-825. doi.org/10.1177/0743558403260098
Yoo, H., & Lee, R. (2005). Ethnic identity and approach type coping as moderator of the racial discrimination /well-being relation in Asian Americans. Journal of Counselling Psychology, 52, 497-506. doi: 10.1037/0022-0167.52.4.497