Valoración de un Programa de Entrenamiento en Estilo Explicativo Optimista y Habilidades de Comunicación en Adolescentes
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Resumen
El estilo explicativo pesimista y las dificultades de interacción social han sido asociados con un incremento de los síntomas depresivos durante la adolescencia. Para disminuir esta sintomatología, se han propuesto algunos programas de entrenamiento centrados en la modificación de uno o ambos elementos. En este estudio se pretende valorar la eficacia de un programa de entrenamiento para fomentar el estilo explicativo optimista y mejorar las habilidades comunicativas. Los participantes han sido 38 adolescentes (19 chicos y 19 chicas), con edades entre 14 y 17 años (M= 14.93; D.T.= 0.87). La mitad fue asignada al azar a un grupo de tratamiento y la otra mitad a un grupo de control de lista de espera. El programa produjo una disminución en los síntomas depresivos (p<.001), así como una mejora en la satisfacción con la vida (p<.001) y las habilidades de interacción con otros adolescentes (p<.01). También se detecta el aumento del tamaño del efecto entre el grupo tratamiento y el grupo control, a favor del primero. Los resultados confirman el beneficio de aplicar programas de entrenamiento centrados en estos componentes para reducir los síntomas depresivos en los adolescentes.
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Palabras clave
Adolescentes, estilo explicativo optimista/pesimista, programas de entrenamiento, satisfacción vital, síntomas depresivos.
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Sección
Artículos originales
Derechos de autor 2017 Summa Psicológica
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Referencias
Alloy, L., Abramson, L., Whitehouse, W., Hogan, M., Panzarella, C. & Rose, D. (2006). Prospective incidence of first onsets and recurrences of depression in individuals at high and low cognitive risk for depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 115(1), 145–156. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.115.1.145
Berger, B., Owen, D. & Man, F. (1993). A brief review of literature and examination of acute mood benefits of exercises in Czechoslovakian and United States swimmers. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 24(2), 130-150. Recuperado de http://www.cabdirect.org/abstracts/19931860420.html
Brunwasser, S., Gillham, J. & Kim, E. (2009). A meta-analytic review of the Penn Resiliency Program. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 77(6), 1042–1054. doi:10.1037/a0017671
Cantrell, K. (2006). An exploratory examination of the effectiveness of explanatory style for positive versus negative events in group cognitive behavioral treatment. Tesis Doctoral no publicada. Laramie, Wyoming: University of Wyoming.
Cardemil, E., Reivich, K. & Seligman, M. (2002). The prevention of depressive symptoms in low-income minority middle school students. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 5(2), 313-327. doi:10.1037/1522-3736.5.1.58a
Chan, S. (2012). Early adolescent depressive mood: Direct and indirect effects of attributional styles and coping. Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 43(3), 455–470. doi:10.1007/s10578-011-0275-9
Chaplin, T., Gillham, J., Reivich, K., Elkon, A., Samuels, B., Freres, D., Winder, B. & Seligman, M. (2006). Depression prevention for early adolescent girls. A pilot study of all girls versus co-ed groups. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 26(1), 110-126. Doi:10.1177/0272431605282655
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. Hillsdale: Erlbaum.
Del Barrio, V. & Carrasco, M. (2004). CDI. Inventario de Depresión Infantil. Madrid: TEA ediciones.
Demir, M. & Weitekamp, L. (2007). I am so happy cause today I found my friend: Friendship and personality as predictors of happiness. Journal of Happiness Studies, 8(2), 181-211. doi:10.1007/s10902-006-9012-7
Diener, E., Emmons, R., Larsen, R. & Griffin, S. (1985). The Satisfaction with Life Scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49(1), 71-75. doi:10.1207/s15327752jpa4901_13
Frydenberg, E. (1997). Adolescent Coping. Londres: Routledge.
Garber, J. (2000). Optimism: Definitions and origins. En J.E. Gillham (Ed.). The science of optimism and hope (pp. 299-314). Philadelphia: Templeton Foundation.
Gibb, B. & Alloy, L. (2006). A prospective test of the hopelessness theory of depression in children. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 35(2), 264-274. doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp3502_10
Gilboy, S. (2003). Students´optimistic attitudes and resiliency program. Empirical validation of a prevention program developing hope and optimism. Tesis Doctoral no publicada. Arizona: University of Arizona.
Gillham J., Brunwasser S.M. & Freres D.R. (2008). Preventing depression in early adolescence. En J.R.Z. Abela & B.L. Hankin (Eds.). Handbook of depression in children and adolescents (pp. 309-322). New York: Guilford Press.
Gillham, J., Hamilton, J., Freres, D., Patton, K. & Gallop, R. (2006). Preventing depression among early adolescents in the primary care setting: a randomized controlled study of the Penn Resiliency Program. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 34(2), 203-219. doi:10.1007/s10802-005-9014-7
Gillham, J. & Reivich, K. (2004). Cultivating optimism in childhood and adolescence. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 591(1), 146-163. doi:10.1177/0002716203260095
Gillham, J., Reivich, K., Jaycox, L. & Seligman, M. (1995). Prevention of depressive symptoms in schoolchildren: Two year follow up. Psychological Science, 6(6), 343-351. Recuperado de http://www.jstor.org/stable/40062887
Gillham, J., Shatte, A., Reivich, K. & Seligman, M. (2001). Optimism, pessimism, and explanatory style. En E.C. Chang (Ed.). Optimism & pessimism: Implications for theory, research, and practice (pp. 53-75). Washington D.C.: American Psychological Association.
Griciute, A. (2011). Analysis of association between depressive symptoms and resilience in secondary school student groups. International Journal of Psychology: A Biopsychosocial Approach, 9, 9-28. Recuperado de http://www.psyjournal.vdu.lt/wp/2011-no-9/analysis-of-association-between-depressive-symptoms-and-resilience-in-secondary-school-student-groups/
Hankin, B. (2008). Cognitive vulnerability–stress model of depression during adolescence: Investigating depressive symptom specificity in a multi-wave prospective study. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36(7), 999-1014. doi:10.1007/s10802-008-9228-6
Hankin, B. & Abramson, L. (2001). Development of gender differences in depression: An elaborated cognitive vulnerability–transactional stress theory. Psychological Bulletin, 127(6), 773-796. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.127.6.773
Inglés, C., Méndez, F., Hidalgo, M., Rosa, A. & Orgilés, M. (2003). Cuestionarios, inventarios y escalas de ansiedad social para adolescentes: Una revisión crítica. Revista de Psicopatología y Psicología Clínica, 8(1), 1-21. doi:10.5944/rppc.vol.8.num.1.2003.3939
Inglés Saura, C., Méndez, F. & Hidalgo, M. (2000). Cuestionario de Evaluación de Dificultades Interpersonales en la Adolescencia. Psicothema, 12(3), 390-398. Recuperado de http://www.psicothema.com/psicothema.asp?id=347
Jacobs, R., Reinecke, M., Gollan, J. & Kane, P. (2008). Empirical evidence of cognitive vulnerability for depression among children and adolescents: A cognitive science and developmental perspective. Clinical Psychology Review, 28(5), 759-782. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2007.10.006
Jaycox L., Reivich K., Gillham J. & Seligman, M. (1994). Prevention of depressive symptoms in school children. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 32(8), 801-816. doi:10.1016/0005-7967(94)90160-0
Kindt, K., Van Zundert, R. & Engels, R. (2012). Evaluation of a Dutch school-based depression prevention program for youths in highrisk neighborhoods: study protocol of a two-armed randomized controlled trial. Biomedical Central Public Health, 12, 212–218. doi:10.1186/1471-2458-12-212
Know, P. & Laurenceau, J. (2002). A longitudinal study of the hopelessness theory of depression: Testing the diathesis-stress model within a differential reactivity exposure framework. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 58(10), 1305-1321. doi:10.1002/jclp.10043
Kovacs, M. (1992). Children's depression inventory: manual. North Tonawanda, NY: Multi-Health Systems.
Lewinsohn, P., Pettit, J., Joiner, T. & Seeley, J. (2003). The symptomatic expression of major depressive disorder in adolescents and young adults. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 112(2), 244-253. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.112.2.244
López Rodríguez, E. (2003). Propiedades psicométricas de una versión española del Cuestionario de Estilo Atribucional (Optimista-Pesimista) para niños (CASQ-T) en una muestra de la provincia de Jaén. Trabajo de Fin de Máster no publicado, Jaén.
Miloseva, L. (2012). A cognitive behavioral depression prevention program for early adolescents. Journal on Educational Psychology, 6(3), 32-40.
Mongrain, M. & Blackburn, S. (2005). Cognitive vulnerability, lifetime risk, and the recurrence of major depression in graduate students. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 29(6), 747-768. doi:10.1007/s10608-005-4290
Morris, S. (2008). Estimating effects sizes from pretest-posttest-control group designs. Organizational Research Methods, 11(2), 364-386. doi:10.1177/1094428106291059
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Girgus, J. & Seligman, M. (1992). Predictors and consequences of childhood depressive symptoms: A 5-year longitudinal study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 101(3), 405-422. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.101.3.405
Nrughma, L., Holen, A. & Sund, A. (2010). Associations between attempted suicide, violent life events, depressive symptoms, and resilience in adolescents and young adults. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 198(2), 131-136. doi:10.1097/NMD.0b013e3181cc43a2
Rodríguez, E., Donnenberg, G., Emerson, E., Wilson, H. & Javdani, S. (2015). Externalizing symptoms moderate associations among interpersonal skills, parenting, and depressive symptoms in adolescents seeking mental health treatment. Journal of Youth Adolescence, 44(4), 952-963. doi:10.1007/s10964-015-0263-7
Sánchez Hernández, O. & Méndez Carrillo, F. (2009). El optimismo como factor protector de la depresión infantil y adolescente. Clínica y Salud, 20(3), 273-280. Recuperado de http://scielo.isciii.es/pdf/clinsa/v20n3/v20n3a08.pdf
Sánchez-Meca, J., Marín-Martínez, F. & López-López, J. (2011). Meta-análisis e intervención psicosocial basada en la evidencia. Psychosocial Intervention, 20(1), 95-107. doi:10.5093/in2011v20n1a8
Sanjuán, P. & Magallares, A. (2006). Estilo atributivo negativo, sucesos vitales y sintomatología depresiva. Revista de Psicopatología y Psicología Clínica, 11(2), 91-98. doi:10.5944/rppc.vol.11.num.2.2006.4020
Sanjuán, P. & Magallares, A. (2009). A longitudinal stydy of the negative explanatory style and attributions of uncontrollability as predictors of depressive symptoms. Personality and Individual Differences, 46(7), 714-718. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2009.01.030
Sanjuán, P., Pérez-García, A., Rueda, B. & Ruiz, M. (2008). Estilos explicativos y afecto negativo. Revista de Psicopatología y Psicología Clínica, 13(1), 45-52. doi:10.5944/rppc.vol.13.num.1.2008.4049
Schwartz, A., Kaslow, N., Seeley, J. & Lewinsohn, P. (2000). Psychological, cognitive, and interpersonal correlates of attributional change in adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 29(2), 188-198. doi:10.1207/S15374424jccp2902_5
Seligman, M., Peterson, C., Kaslow, N., Tanenbaum, R., Alloy, L. & Abramson, L. (1984). Attributional style and depressive symptoms among children. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 93(2), 235-238. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.93.2.235
Shatté, A.J., Gillham, J.E. & Reivich, K. (2000). Promoting hope in children and adolescents. En J.E. Gillham (Ed.). The science of optimism and hope: Research essays in honor of Martin E. P. Seligman. Laws of life symposia series (pp. 215-234). West Conshohocken, PA: Templeton Foundation Press.
Southwick, S., Litz, B., Charney, D. & Friedman, M. (2011). Resilience and mental health. Challenges across the lifespan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Sturman, E., Mongrain, M. & Kohn, P. (2006). Attributional style as a predictor of hopelessness depression. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, 20(4), 447-458. doi:10.1891/jcpiq-v20i4a008
Suldo, S., Savage, J. & Mercer, S. (2014). Increasing Middle School Students’ Life Satisfaction: Efficacy of a Positive Psychology Group Intervention. Journal of Happiness Studies, 15(1), 19-42. doi:10.1007/s10902-013-9414-2
Tak, Y., Van Zundert, R., Kuijpers, R., Van Vlokhoven, B., Rensink, H. & Engels, R. (2012). A randomized controlled trial testing the effectiveness of a universal schoolbased depression prevention program ‘Op Volle Kracht’ in the Netherlands. Biomedical Central Public Health, 12, 21–29. doi:10.1186/1471-2458-12-21
Thompson, M., Kaslow, N., Weiss, B. & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1998). Children's Attributional Style Questionnaire—Revised: Psychometric examination. Psychological Assessment, 10(2), 166-170. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.10.2.166.
Twenge, J. & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2002). Age, gender, race, socioeconomic status, and birth cohort differences on the Children's Depression Inventory: A meta-analysis. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 111(4), 578-588. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.111.4.578
Wijnhoven, L., Creemer, D., Vermulst, A., Scholte, R. & Engels, R. (2014). Randomized controlled trial testing the effectiveness of a depression prevention program (‘Op Volle Krtacht’) among adolescent girls with elevated depressive symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 42(2), 217-228. doi:10.1007/s10802-013-9773-5
Berger, B., Owen, D. & Man, F. (1993). A brief review of literature and examination of acute mood benefits of exercises in Czechoslovakian and United States swimmers. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 24(2), 130-150. Recuperado de http://www.cabdirect.org/abstracts/19931860420.html
Brunwasser, S., Gillham, J. & Kim, E. (2009). A meta-analytic review of the Penn Resiliency Program. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 77(6), 1042–1054. doi:10.1037/a0017671
Cantrell, K. (2006). An exploratory examination of the effectiveness of explanatory style for positive versus negative events in group cognitive behavioral treatment. Tesis Doctoral no publicada. Laramie, Wyoming: University of Wyoming.
Cardemil, E., Reivich, K. & Seligman, M. (2002). The prevention of depressive symptoms in low-income minority middle school students. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 5(2), 313-327. doi:10.1037/1522-3736.5.1.58a
Chan, S. (2012). Early adolescent depressive mood: Direct and indirect effects of attributional styles and coping. Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 43(3), 455–470. doi:10.1007/s10578-011-0275-9
Chaplin, T., Gillham, J., Reivich, K., Elkon, A., Samuels, B., Freres, D., Winder, B. & Seligman, M. (2006). Depression prevention for early adolescent girls. A pilot study of all girls versus co-ed groups. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 26(1), 110-126. Doi:10.1177/0272431605282655
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. Hillsdale: Erlbaum.
Del Barrio, V. & Carrasco, M. (2004). CDI. Inventario de Depresión Infantil. Madrid: TEA ediciones.
Demir, M. & Weitekamp, L. (2007). I am so happy cause today I found my friend: Friendship and personality as predictors of happiness. Journal of Happiness Studies, 8(2), 181-211. doi:10.1007/s10902-006-9012-7
Diener, E., Emmons, R., Larsen, R. & Griffin, S. (1985). The Satisfaction with Life Scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49(1), 71-75. doi:10.1207/s15327752jpa4901_13
Frydenberg, E. (1997). Adolescent Coping. Londres: Routledge.
Garber, J. (2000). Optimism: Definitions and origins. En J.E. Gillham (Ed.). The science of optimism and hope (pp. 299-314). Philadelphia: Templeton Foundation.
Gibb, B. & Alloy, L. (2006). A prospective test of the hopelessness theory of depression in children. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 35(2), 264-274. doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp3502_10
Gilboy, S. (2003). Students´optimistic attitudes and resiliency program. Empirical validation of a prevention program developing hope and optimism. Tesis Doctoral no publicada. Arizona: University of Arizona.
Gillham J., Brunwasser S.M. & Freres D.R. (2008). Preventing depression in early adolescence. En J.R.Z. Abela & B.L. Hankin (Eds.). Handbook of depression in children and adolescents (pp. 309-322). New York: Guilford Press.
Gillham, J., Hamilton, J., Freres, D., Patton, K. & Gallop, R. (2006). Preventing depression among early adolescents in the primary care setting: a randomized controlled study of the Penn Resiliency Program. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 34(2), 203-219. doi:10.1007/s10802-005-9014-7
Gillham, J. & Reivich, K. (2004). Cultivating optimism in childhood and adolescence. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 591(1), 146-163. doi:10.1177/0002716203260095
Gillham, J., Reivich, K., Jaycox, L. & Seligman, M. (1995). Prevention of depressive symptoms in schoolchildren: Two year follow up. Psychological Science, 6(6), 343-351. Recuperado de http://www.jstor.org/stable/40062887
Gillham, J., Shatte, A., Reivich, K. & Seligman, M. (2001). Optimism, pessimism, and explanatory style. En E.C. Chang (Ed.). Optimism & pessimism: Implications for theory, research, and practice (pp. 53-75). Washington D.C.: American Psychological Association.
Griciute, A. (2011). Analysis of association between depressive symptoms and resilience in secondary school student groups. International Journal of Psychology: A Biopsychosocial Approach, 9, 9-28. Recuperado de http://www.psyjournal.vdu.lt/wp/2011-no-9/analysis-of-association-between-depressive-symptoms-and-resilience-in-secondary-school-student-groups/
Hankin, B. (2008). Cognitive vulnerability–stress model of depression during adolescence: Investigating depressive symptom specificity in a multi-wave prospective study. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36(7), 999-1014. doi:10.1007/s10802-008-9228-6
Hankin, B. & Abramson, L. (2001). Development of gender differences in depression: An elaborated cognitive vulnerability–transactional stress theory. Psychological Bulletin, 127(6), 773-796. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.127.6.773
Inglés, C., Méndez, F., Hidalgo, M., Rosa, A. & Orgilés, M. (2003). Cuestionarios, inventarios y escalas de ansiedad social para adolescentes: Una revisión crítica. Revista de Psicopatología y Psicología Clínica, 8(1), 1-21. doi:10.5944/rppc.vol.8.num.1.2003.3939
Inglés Saura, C., Méndez, F. & Hidalgo, M. (2000). Cuestionario de Evaluación de Dificultades Interpersonales en la Adolescencia. Psicothema, 12(3), 390-398. Recuperado de http://www.psicothema.com/psicothema.asp?id=347
Jacobs, R., Reinecke, M., Gollan, J. & Kane, P. (2008). Empirical evidence of cognitive vulnerability for depression among children and adolescents: A cognitive science and developmental perspective. Clinical Psychology Review, 28(5), 759-782. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2007.10.006
Jaycox L., Reivich K., Gillham J. & Seligman, M. (1994). Prevention of depressive symptoms in school children. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 32(8), 801-816. doi:10.1016/0005-7967(94)90160-0
Kindt, K., Van Zundert, R. & Engels, R. (2012). Evaluation of a Dutch school-based depression prevention program for youths in highrisk neighborhoods: study protocol of a two-armed randomized controlled trial. Biomedical Central Public Health, 12, 212–218. doi:10.1186/1471-2458-12-212
Know, P. & Laurenceau, J. (2002). A longitudinal study of the hopelessness theory of depression: Testing the diathesis-stress model within a differential reactivity exposure framework. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 58(10), 1305-1321. doi:10.1002/jclp.10043
Kovacs, M. (1992). Children's depression inventory: manual. North Tonawanda, NY: Multi-Health Systems.
Lewinsohn, P., Pettit, J., Joiner, T. & Seeley, J. (2003). The symptomatic expression of major depressive disorder in adolescents and young adults. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 112(2), 244-253. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.112.2.244
López Rodríguez, E. (2003). Propiedades psicométricas de una versión española del Cuestionario de Estilo Atribucional (Optimista-Pesimista) para niños (CASQ-T) en una muestra de la provincia de Jaén. Trabajo de Fin de Máster no publicado, Jaén.
Miloseva, L. (2012). A cognitive behavioral depression prevention program for early adolescents. Journal on Educational Psychology, 6(3), 32-40.
Mongrain, M. & Blackburn, S. (2005). Cognitive vulnerability, lifetime risk, and the recurrence of major depression in graduate students. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 29(6), 747-768. doi:10.1007/s10608-005-4290
Morris, S. (2008). Estimating effects sizes from pretest-posttest-control group designs. Organizational Research Methods, 11(2), 364-386. doi:10.1177/1094428106291059
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Girgus, J. & Seligman, M. (1992). Predictors and consequences of childhood depressive symptoms: A 5-year longitudinal study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 101(3), 405-422. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.101.3.405
Nrughma, L., Holen, A. & Sund, A. (2010). Associations between attempted suicide, violent life events, depressive symptoms, and resilience in adolescents and young adults. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 198(2), 131-136. doi:10.1097/NMD.0b013e3181cc43a2
Rodríguez, E., Donnenberg, G., Emerson, E., Wilson, H. & Javdani, S. (2015). Externalizing symptoms moderate associations among interpersonal skills, parenting, and depressive symptoms in adolescents seeking mental health treatment. Journal of Youth Adolescence, 44(4), 952-963. doi:10.1007/s10964-015-0263-7
Sánchez Hernández, O. & Méndez Carrillo, F. (2009). El optimismo como factor protector de la depresión infantil y adolescente. Clínica y Salud, 20(3), 273-280. Recuperado de http://scielo.isciii.es/pdf/clinsa/v20n3/v20n3a08.pdf
Sánchez-Meca, J., Marín-Martínez, F. & López-López, J. (2011). Meta-análisis e intervención psicosocial basada en la evidencia. Psychosocial Intervention, 20(1), 95-107. doi:10.5093/in2011v20n1a8
Sanjuán, P. & Magallares, A. (2006). Estilo atributivo negativo, sucesos vitales y sintomatología depresiva. Revista de Psicopatología y Psicología Clínica, 11(2), 91-98. doi:10.5944/rppc.vol.11.num.2.2006.4020
Sanjuán, P. & Magallares, A. (2009). A longitudinal stydy of the negative explanatory style and attributions of uncontrollability as predictors of depressive symptoms. Personality and Individual Differences, 46(7), 714-718. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2009.01.030
Sanjuán, P., Pérez-García, A., Rueda, B. & Ruiz, M. (2008). Estilos explicativos y afecto negativo. Revista de Psicopatología y Psicología Clínica, 13(1), 45-52. doi:10.5944/rppc.vol.13.num.1.2008.4049
Schwartz, A., Kaslow, N., Seeley, J. & Lewinsohn, P. (2000). Psychological, cognitive, and interpersonal correlates of attributional change in adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 29(2), 188-198. doi:10.1207/S15374424jccp2902_5
Seligman, M., Peterson, C., Kaslow, N., Tanenbaum, R., Alloy, L. & Abramson, L. (1984). Attributional style and depressive symptoms among children. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 93(2), 235-238. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.93.2.235
Shatté, A.J., Gillham, J.E. & Reivich, K. (2000). Promoting hope in children and adolescents. En J.E. Gillham (Ed.). The science of optimism and hope: Research essays in honor of Martin E. P. Seligman. Laws of life symposia series (pp. 215-234). West Conshohocken, PA: Templeton Foundation Press.
Southwick, S., Litz, B., Charney, D. & Friedman, M. (2011). Resilience and mental health. Challenges across the lifespan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Sturman, E., Mongrain, M. & Kohn, P. (2006). Attributional style as a predictor of hopelessness depression. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, 20(4), 447-458. doi:10.1891/jcpiq-v20i4a008
Suldo, S., Savage, J. & Mercer, S. (2014). Increasing Middle School Students’ Life Satisfaction: Efficacy of a Positive Psychology Group Intervention. Journal of Happiness Studies, 15(1), 19-42. doi:10.1007/s10902-013-9414-2
Tak, Y., Van Zundert, R., Kuijpers, R., Van Vlokhoven, B., Rensink, H. & Engels, R. (2012). A randomized controlled trial testing the effectiveness of a universal schoolbased depression prevention program ‘Op Volle Kracht’ in the Netherlands. Biomedical Central Public Health, 12, 21–29. doi:10.1186/1471-2458-12-21
Thompson, M., Kaslow, N., Weiss, B. & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1998). Children's Attributional Style Questionnaire—Revised: Psychometric examination. Psychological Assessment, 10(2), 166-170. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.10.2.166.
Twenge, J. & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2002). Age, gender, race, socioeconomic status, and birth cohort differences on the Children's Depression Inventory: A meta-analysis. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 111(4), 578-588. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.111.4.578
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